Etichetă: École Normale Supérieure

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A Grande école is a specialised elite professional school that is separate from, but parallel and often connected to, the main framework of the French public university system. The grandes écoles offer teaching, research and professional training in single academic fields such as engineering, architecture, business administration, academic research, or public policy and administration. The schools only admit students through an extremely competitive examination process; a significant proportion of their graduates occupy senior positions in French business, academia, civil service and civil society. Grandes écoles primarily admit students based on their national ranking in competitive written and oral exams called concours, which are organised annually by the French central government. While anyone can register for concours, successful candidates have almost always completed two or three years of dedicated preparatory classes ('classes preparatoires') prior to admission. Most Grandes écoles are publicly funded and therefore have limited tuition costs. Some grandes écoles, especially business school (Écoles de Commerce), are organised privately, and therefore have more costly tuitions. The term Grande école originated in 1794 after the French Revolution, when the National Convention created the École normale supérieure, the mathematician Gaspard Monge and Lazare Carnot created the École centrale des travaux publics (later École Polytechnique), and the abbot Henri Grégoire created the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers. The model was probably the military academy at Mézières, of which Monge was an alumnus. The system of competitive entry was used as a means to open up higher education to more candidates based on merit. Some schools included in the category have roots in the 17th and 18th centuries and are older than the term Grande école, which dates to 1794. Their forerunners were schools aimed at graduating civil servants, such as technical officers (Ecole d'Arts et Métiers, renamed Arts et Métiers ParisTech, established in 1780), mine supervisors (École des mines de Paris established in 1783), bridge and road engineers (École royale des ponts et chaussées established in 1747), and shipbuilding engineers (École des ingénieurs-constructeurs des vaisseaux royaux established in 1741). Five military engineering academies and graduate schools of artillery were established in the 17th century in France, such as the Ecole de l'artillerie de Douai (established in 1697) and the later école du génie de Mézières (established in 1748), wherein mathematics, chemistry and sciences were already a major part of the curriculum taught by first-rank scientists such as Pierre-Simon Laplace, Charles Étienne Louis Camus, Étienne Bézout, Sylvestre-François Lacroix, Siméon Denis Poisson, Gaspard Monge (most of whom were later to form the teaching corps of École Polytechnique during the Napoleonic era). In 1802, Napoleon created the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr, which is also considered a grande école, although it trains only army officers. During the 19th century, a number of higher-education grandes écoles were established to support industry and commerce, such as École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Étienne in 1816, Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris (today ESCP Business School, founded in 1819), L'institut des sciences et industries du vivant et de l'environnement (Agro ParisTech) in 1826, and École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (École Centrale Paris) in 1829.

A Grande école is a specialised elite professional school that is separate from, but parallel and often connected to, the main framework of the French public university system. The grandes écoles offer teaching, research and professional training in single academic fields such as engineering, architecture, business administration, academic research, or public policy and administration. The schools only admit students through an extremely competitive examination process; a significant proportion of their graduates occupy senior positions in French business, academia, civil service and civil society. Grandes écoles primarily admit students based on their national ranking in competitive written and oral exams called concours, which are organised annually by the French central government. While anyone can register for concours, successful candidates have almost always completed two or three years of dedicated preparatory classes ('classes preparatoires') prior to admission. Most Grandes écoles are publicly funded and therefore have limited tuition costs. Some grandes écoles, especially business school (Écoles de Commerce), are organised privately, and therefore have more costly tuitions. The term Grande école originated in 1794 after the French Revolution, when the National Convention created the École normale supérieure, the mathematician Gaspard Monge and Lazare Carnot created the École centrale des travaux publics (later École Polytechnique), and the abbot Henri Grégoire created the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers. The model was probably the military academy at Mézières, of which Monge was an alumnus. The system of competitive entry was used as a means to open up higher education to more candidates based on merit. Some schools included in the category have roots in the 17th and 18th centuries and are older than the term Grande école, which dates to 1794. Their forerunners were schools aimed at graduating civil servants, such as technical officers (Ecole d'Arts et Métiers, renamed Arts et Métiers ParisTech, established in 1780), mine supervisors (École des mines de Paris established in 1783), bridge and road engineers (École royale des ponts et chaussées established in 1747), and shipbuilding engineers (École des ingénieurs-constructeurs des vaisseaux royaux established in 1741). Five military engineering academies and graduate schools of artillery were established in the 17th century in France, such as the Ecole de l'artillerie de Douai (established in 1697) and the later école du génie de Mézières (established in 1748), wherein mathematics, chemistry and sciences were already a major part of the curriculum taught by first-rank scientists such as Pierre-Simon Laplace, Charles Étienne Louis Camus, Étienne Bézout, Sylvestre-François Lacroix, Siméon Denis Poisson, Gaspard Monge (most of whom were later to form the teaching corps of École Polytechnique during the Napoleonic era). In 1802, Napoleon created the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr, which is also considered a grande école, although it trains only army officers. During the 19th century, a number of higher-education grandes écoles were established to support industry and commerce, such as École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Étienne in 1816, Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris (today ESCP Business School, founded in 1819), L'institut des sciences et industries du vivant et de l'environnement (Agro ParisTech) in 1826, and École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (École Centrale Paris) in 1829.

A Grande école is a specialised elite professional school that is separate from, but parallel and often connected to, the main framework of the French public university system. The grandes écoles offer teaching, research and professional training in single academic fields such as engineering, architecture, business administration, academic research, or public policy and administration. The schools only admit students through an extremely competitive examination process; a significant proportion of their graduates occupy senior positions in French business, academia, civil service and civil society. Grandes écoles primarily admit students based on their national ranking in competitive written and oral exams called concours, which are organised annually by the French central government. While anyone can register for concours, successful candidates have almost always completed two or three years of dedicated preparatory classes ('classes preparatoires') prior to admission. Most Grandes écoles are publicly funded and therefore have limited tuition costs. Some grandes écoles, especially business school (Écoles de Commerce), are organised privately, and therefore have more costly tuitions. The term Grande école originated in 1794 after the French Revolution, when the National Convention created the École normale supérieure, the mathematician Gaspard Monge and Lazare Carnot created the École centrale des travaux publics (later École Polytechnique), and the abbot Henri Grégoire created the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers. The model was probably the military academy at Mézières, of which Monge was an alumnus. The system of competitive entry was used as a means to open up higher education to more candidates based on merit. Some schools included in the category have roots in the 17th and 18th centuries and are older than the term Grande école, which dates to 1794. Their forerunners were schools aimed at graduating civil servants, such as technical officers (Ecole d'Arts et Métiers, renamed Arts et Métiers ParisTech, established in 1780), mine supervisors (École des mines de Paris established in 1783), bridge and road engineers (École royale des ponts et chaussées established in 1747), and shipbuilding engineers (École des ingénieurs-constructeurs des vaisseaux royaux established in 1741). Five military engineering academies and graduate schools of artillery were established in the 17th century in France, such as the Ecole de l'artillerie de Douai (established in 1697) and the later école du génie de Mézières (established in 1748), wherein mathematics, chemistry and sciences were already a major part of the curriculum taught by first-rank scientists such as Pierre-Simon Laplace, Charles Étienne Louis Camus, Étienne Bézout, Sylvestre-François Lacroix, Siméon Denis Poisson, Gaspard Monge (most of whom were later to form the teaching corps of École Polytechnique during the Napoleonic era). In 1802, Napoleon created the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr, which is also considered a grande école, although it trains only army officers. During the 19th century, a number of higher-education grandes écoles were established to support industry and commerce, such as École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Étienne in 1816, Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris (today ESCP Business School, founded in 1819), L'institut des sciences et industries du vivant et de l'environnement (Agro ParisTech) in 1826, and École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (École Centrale Paris) in 1829.

A Grande école is a specialised elite professional school that is separate from, but parallel and often connected to, the main framework of the French public university system. The grandes écoles offer teaching, research and professional training in single academic fields such as engineering, architecture, business administration, academic research, or public policy and administration. The schools only admit students through an extremely competitive examination process; a significant proportion of their graduates occupy senior positions in French business, academia, civil service and civil society. Grandes écoles primarily admit students based on their national ranking in competitive written and oral exams called concours, which are organised annually by the French central government. While anyone can register for concours, successful candidates have almost always completed two or three years of dedicated preparatory classes ('classes preparatoires') prior to admission. Most Grandes écoles are publicly funded and therefore have limited tuition costs. Some grandes écoles, especially business school (Écoles de Commerce), are organised privately, and therefore have more costly tuitions. The term Grande école originated in 1794 after the French Revolution, when the National Convention created the École normale supérieure, the mathematician Gaspard Monge and Lazare Carnot created the École centrale des travaux publics (later École Polytechnique), and the abbot Henri Grégoire created the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers. The model was probably the military academy at Mézières, of which Monge was an alumnus. The system of competitive entry was used as a means to open up higher education to more candidates based on merit. Some schools included in the category have roots in the 17th and 18th centuries and are older than the term Grande école, which dates to 1794. Their forerunners were schools aimed at graduating civil servants, such as technical officers (Ecole d'Arts et Métiers, renamed Arts et Métiers ParisTech, established in 1780), mine supervisors (École des mines de Paris established in 1783), bridge and road engineers (École royale des ponts et chaussées established in 1747), and shipbuilding engineers (École des ingénieurs-constructeurs des vaisseaux royaux established in 1741). Five military engineering academies and graduate schools of artillery were established in the 17th century in France, such as the Ecole de l'artillerie de Douai (established in 1697) and the later école du génie de Mézières (established in 1748), wherein mathematics, chemistry and sciences were already a major part of the curriculum taught by first-rank scientists such as Pierre-Simon Laplace, Charles Étienne Louis Camus, Étienne Bézout, Sylvestre-François Lacroix, Siméon Denis Poisson, Gaspard Monge (most of whom were later to form the teaching corps of École Polytechnique during the Napoleonic era). In 1802, Napoleon created the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr, which is also considered a grande école, although it trains only army officers. During the 19th century, a number of higher-education grandes écoles were established to support industry and commerce, such as École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Étienne in 1816, Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris (today ESCP Business School, founded in 1819), L'institut des sciences et industries du vivant et de l'environnement (Agro ParisTech) in 1826, and École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (École Centrale Paris) in 1829.

A Grande école  is a specialised elite professional school that is separate from, but parallel and often connected to, the main framework of the French public university system. The grandes écoles offer teaching, research and professional training in single academic fields such as engineering, architecture, business administration, academic research, or public policy and administration. The schools only admit students through an extremely competitive examination process; a significant proportion of their graduates occupy senior positions in French business, academia, civil service and civil society.Grandes écoles primarily admit students based on their national ranking in competitive written and oral exams called concours, which are organised annually by the French central government. While anyone can register for concours, successful candidates have almost always completed two or three years of dedicated preparatory classes ('classes preparatoires') prior to admission. Most Grandes écoles are publicly funded and therefore have limited tuition costs. Some grandes écoles, especially business school (Écoles de Commerce), are organised privately, and therefore have more costly tuitions.The term Grande école originated in 1794 after the French Revolution, when the National Convention created the École normale supérieure, the mathematician Gaspard Monge and Lazare Carnot created the École centrale des travaux publics (later École Polytechnique), and the abbot Henri Grégoire created the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers.The model was probably the military academy at Mézières, of which Monge was an alumnus. The system of competitive entry was used as a means to open up higher education to more candidates based on merit. Some schools included in the category have roots in the 17th and 18th centuries and are older than the term Grande école, which dates to 1794. Their forerunners were schools aimed at graduating civil servants, such as technical officers (Ecole d'Arts et Métiers, renamed Arts et Métiers ParisTech, established in 1780), mine supervisors (École des mines de Paris established in 1783), bridge and road engineers (École royale des ponts et chaussées established in 1747), and shipbuilding engineers (École des ingénieurs-constructeurs des vaisseaux royaux established in 1741).Five military engineering academies and graduate schools of artillery were established in the 17th century in France, such as the Ecole de l'artillerie de Douai (established in 1697) and the later école du génie de Mézières (established in 1748), wherein mathematics, chemistry and sciences were already a major part of the curriculum taught by first-rank scientists such as Pierre-Simon Laplace, Charles Étienne Louis Camus, Étienne Bézout, Sylvestre-François Lacroix, Siméon Denis Poisson, Gaspard Monge (most of whom were later to form the teaching corps of École Polytechnique during the Napoleonic era).In 1802, Napoleon created the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr, which is also considered a grande école, although it trains only army officers. During the 19th century, a number of higher-education grandes écoles were established to support industry and commerce, such as École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Étienne in 1816, Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris (today ESCP Business School, founded in 1819), L'institut des sciences et industries du vivant et de l'environnement (Agro ParisTech) in 1826, and École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (École Centrale Paris) in 1829.

A Grande école  is a specialised elite professional school that is separate from, but parallel and often connected to, the main framework of the French public university system. The grandes écoles offer teaching, research and professional training in single academic fields such as engineering, architecture, business administration, academic research, or public policy and administration. The schools only admit students through an extremely competitive examination process; a significant proportion of their graduates occupy senior positions in French business, academia, civil service and civil society. Grandes écoles primarily admit students based on their national ranking in competitive written and oral exams called concours, which are organised annually by the French central government. While anyone can register for concours, successful candidates have almost always completed two or three years of dedicated preparatory classes ('classes preparatoires') prior to admission. Most Grandes écoles are publicly funded and therefore have limited tuition costs. Some grandes écoles, especially business school (Écoles de Commerce), are organised privately, and therefore have more costly tuitions. The term Grande école originated in 1794 after the French Revolution, when the National Convention created the École normale supérieure, the mathematician Gaspard Monge and Lazare Carnot created the École centrale des travaux publics (later École Polytechnique), and the abbot Henri Grégoire created the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers. The model was probably the military academy at Mézières, of which Monge was an alumnus. The system of competitive entry was used as a means to open up higher education to more candidates based on merit. Some schools included in the category have roots in the 17th and 18th centuries and are older than the term Grande école, which dates to 1794. Their forerunners were schools aimed at graduating civil servants, such as technical officers (Ecole d'Arts et Métiers, renamed Arts et Métiers ParisTech, established in 1780), mine supervisors (École des mines de Paris established in 1783), bridge and road engineers (École royale des ponts et chaussées established in 1747), and shipbuilding engineers (École des ingénieurs-constructeurs des vaisseaux royaux established in 1741). Five military engineering academies and graduate schools of artillery were established in the 17th century in France, such as the Ecole de l'artillerie de Douai (established in 1697) and the later école du génie de Mézières (established in 1748), wherein mathematics, chemistry and sciences were already a major part of the curriculum taught by first-rank scientists such as Pierre-Simon Laplace, Charles Étienne Louis Camus, Étienne Bézout, Sylvestre-François Lacroix, Siméon Denis Poisson, Gaspard Monge (most of whom were later to form the teaching corps of École Polytechnique during the Napoleonic era). In 1802, Napoleon created the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr, which is also considered a grande école, although it trains only army officers. During the 19th century, a number of higher-education grandes écoles were established to support industry and commerce, such as École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Étienne in 1816, Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris (today ESCP Business School, founded in 1819), L'institut des sciences et industries du vivant et de l'environnement (Agro ParisTech) in 1826, and École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (École Centrale Paris) in 1829.

A Grande école is a specialised elite professional school that is separate from, but parallel and often connected to, the main framework of the French public university system. The grandes écoles offer teaching, research and professional training in single academic fields such as engineering, architecture, business administration, academic research, or public policy and administration. The schools only admit students through an extremely competitive examination process; a significant proportion of their graduates occupy senior positions in French business, academia, civil service and civil society. Grandes écoles primarily admit students based on their national ranking in competitive written and oral exams called concours, which are organised annually by the French central government. While anyone can register for concours, successful candidates have almost always completed two or three years of dedicated preparatory classes ('classes preparatoires') prior to admission. Most Grandes écoles are publicly funded and therefore have limited tuition costs. Some grandes écoles, especially business school (Écoles de Commerce), are organised privately, and therefore have more costly tuitions. The term Grande école originated in 1794 after the French Revolution, when the National Convention created the École normale supérieure, the mathematician Gaspard Monge and Lazare Carnot created the École centrale des travaux publics (later École Polytechnique), and the abbot Henri Grégoire created the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers. The model was probably the military academy at Mézières, of which Monge was an alumnus. The system of competitive entry was used as a means to open up higher education to more candidates based on merit. Some schools included in the category have roots in the 17th and 18th centuries and are older than the term Grande école, which dates to 1794. Their forerunners were schools aimed at graduating civil servants, such as technical officers (Ecole d'Arts et Métiers, renamed Arts et Métiers ParisTech, established in 1780), mine supervisors (École des mines de Paris established in 1783), bridge and road engineers (École royale des ponts et chaussées established in 1747), and shipbuilding engineers (École des ingénieurs-constructeurs des vaisseaux royaux established in 1741). Five military engineering academies and graduate schools of artillery were established in the 17th century in France, such as the Ecole de l'artillerie de Douai (established in 1697) and the later école du génie de Mézières (established in 1748), wherein mathematics, chemistry and sciences were already a major part of the curriculum taught by first-rank scientists such as Pierre-Simon Laplace, Charles Étienne Louis Camus, Étienne Bézout, Sylvestre-François Lacroix, Siméon Denis Poisson, Gaspard Monge (most of whom were later to form the teaching corps of École Polytechnique during the Napoleonic era). In 1802, Napoleon created the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr, which is also considered a grande école, although it trains only army officers. During the 19th century, a number of higher-education grandes écoles were established to support industry and commerce, such as École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Étienne in 1816, Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris (today ESCP Business School, founded in 1819), L'institut des sciences et industries du vivant et de l'environnement (Agro ParisTech) in 1826, and École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (École Centrale Paris) in 1829.

A Grande école is a specialised elite professional school that is separate from, but parallel and often connected to, the main framework of the French public university system. The grandes écoles offer teaching, research and professional training in single academic fields such as engineering, architecture, business administration, academic research, or public policy and administration. The schools only admit students through an extremely competitive examination process; a significant proportion of their graduates occupy senior positions in French business, academia, civil service and civil society. Grandes écoles primarily admit students based on their national ranking in competitive written and oral exams called concours, which are organised annually by the French central government. While anyone can register for concours, successful candidates have almost always completed two or three years of dedicated preparatory classes ('classes preparatoires') prior to admission. Most Grandes écoles are publicly funded and therefore have limited tuition costs. Some grandes écoles, especially business school (Écoles de Commerce), are organised privately, and therefore have more costly tuitions. The term Grande école originated in 1794 after the French Revolution, when the National Convention created the École normale supérieure, the mathematician Gaspard Monge and Lazare Carnot created the École centrale des travaux publics (later École Polytechnique), and the abbot Henri Grégoire created the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers. The model was probably the military academy at Mézières, of which Monge was an alumnus. The system of competitive entry was used as a means to open up higher education to more candidates based on merit. Some schools included in the category have roots in the 17th and 18th centuries and are older than the term Grande école, which dates to 1794. Their forerunners were schools aimed at graduating civil servants, such as technical officers (Ecole d'Arts et Métiers, renamed Arts et Métiers ParisTech, established in 1780), mine supervisors (École des mines de Paris established in 1783), bridge and road engineers (École royale des ponts et chaussées established in 1747), and shipbuilding engineers (École des ingénieurs-constructeurs des vaisseaux royaux established in 1741). Five military engineering academies and graduate schools of artillery were established in the 17th century in France, such as the Ecole de l'artillerie de Douai (established in 1697) and the later école du génie de Mézières (established in 1748), wherein mathematics, chemistry and sciences were already a major part of the curriculum taught by first-rank scientists such as Pierre-Simon Laplace, Charles Étienne Louis Camus, Étienne Bézout, Sylvestre-François Lacroix, Siméon Denis Poisson, Gaspard Monge (most of whom were later to form the teaching corps of École Polytechnique during the Napoleonic era). In 1802, Napoleon created the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr, which is also considered a grande école, although it trains only army officers. During the 19th century, a number of higher-education grandes écoles were established to support industry and commerce, such as École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Étienne in 1816, Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris (today ESCP Business School, founded in 1819), L'institut des sciences et industries du vivant et de l'environnement (Agro ParisTech) in 1826, and École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (École Centrale Paris) in 1829.

                                  „Omul de știință este un filozof sărac.” – Albert Einstein Idealismul este o orientare fundamentală în filozofie care se opune materialismului prin soluția...

Aparuta ca o alternativa în raport cu privarea de libertate, în America de Nord (pentru prima data în SUA, în 1983, apoi, în provinciile canadiene: Columbia Britanica, Saskatchewan, Ontario si Terre Neuve din 1999), iar în Europa Occidentala (în Anglia si în Tara Galilor, în 1989; în Suedia, în 1994 ; în Olanda, în 1995 si în Belgia, în 1998), în cadrul legislatiei franceze, supravegherea electronica („libertatea sub sechestru electronic”), introdusa în Dreptul Penal francez (prin Legea din 30 decembrie 1996),  apare în doua etape sub forma de: plasarea sub supraveghere electronica (în versiunea)  fixa a unei persoane care executa o pedeapsa privata de libertate (creata prin Legea din 19 decemrie 1997, care constituie o masura de amenajare a pedepsei de catre un JAP–Judecator   responsabil cu amenajarea pedepesei), la domiciliul acestuia (zilnic si numai între anumite ore), respectiv, plasarea sub supraveghere electronica (în versiunea) mobila (instaurata prin Legea din 12-13 decembrie 2005) contra recidivei infractiunilor penale criminale, o „amenajare” a „retentiei de siguranta‟ (în centre speciale cu „libertate limitata”) cu scopul de a controla fostii condamnati care si-au executat pedeapsa dar se afla sub supraveghere socio–judiciara pentru ca prezinta un risc ridicat de recidiva, fie datorita unor grave tulburari de personalitate, fie pentru ca au fost condamnati pentru crime sexuale. „Retentia de siguranta” (supravegherea pe termen nelimitat conform art. 131-36-1, 131-36-6 si 131-36-7, 221-9-1, 222-48-1 si 227-31 din CPF) si de declarare a iresponsabilitatii penale din motive de tulburari psihice‟ (a fost introdusa prin Legea nr. 2008-174 din 25 februarie 2008 relativ si reglementata prin art.706-53-13 din CPPF, la sugestia fostului presedinte al Republicii Frnceze Nicolas Sarkozy (n.1955, în functie între 2007–2012) si depinde de JAP sau (de TAB – Tribunalul de Aplicare si Amenajare a Pedepsei, conform  art. 131-36-1 diu CPF si  763-1, 763-3 si 763-8 din CPPF). În concluzie, în Franta, plasarea sub supraveghere electronica (adica, „sechestrarea libertatii”, electronic!) a unui condamnat de catre o Camera Criminala (Curte cu Jurati în cadrul unui TGI – Tribunal de Inalta Instanta) sau Camera Corectionala  (în cadrul unui TC – Tribunal Corectional), care executa o pedeapsa privata de libertate, este o alternativa încarcerarii acestuia intr-o institutie penitenciara: Centru de Detentie (pentru o sanctiune penala inferioara a 10 ani) sau Inschisoare de Maxima Siguranta (pentru o recluziune criminala cuprinsa între 10 si 30 de ani, respectiv, inchisoare pe viata) sau într-un Centru de Detentie Provizorie (în cazul unei încarcerari pe perioada instrumentarii dosarului inculpatului).